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The IFJ Declaration of Principles (adopted 1954, amended 1986 in Helsingรถr) specifically defines the following as grave professional offences for journalists:
- Plagiarism
- Malicious misrepresentation
- Calumny, slander, libel, and unfounded accusations
- Acceptance of a bribe in any form in consideration of either publication or suppression of information
Expressing personal political opinions in editorial content is not listed as a grave professional offence in this declaration. The declaration also requires journalists to: respect truth, defend freedom of information, report only facts of known origin, use only fair methods to obtain news, rectify inaccurate information, observe professional secrecy regarding sources, and be aware of discrimination. The code emphasises that journalists should recognise “in professional matters the jurisdiction of colleagues only, to the exclusion of every kind of interference by governments or others.”
This is a frequently misunderstood historical fact. According to the textbook, the first printing press in Muslim territory was established in Andalusia (Muslim-ruled Spain) in the 1480s. Crucially, it was operated not by Muslim scholars but by a family of Jewish merchants, who used it to print texts in the Hebrew script. After the fall of Granada to Catholic Spain in the 1490s (completing the Reconquista), this press was relocated โ the textbook notes it moved to Istanbul, which had become a major destination for the Sephardic Jewish community expelled from Spain. Islamic calligraphic traditions were highly valued, and there was cultural resistance to the printing press in many parts of the Muslim world, which partly explains why the technology spread more slowly there than in Christian Europe despite the Muslim world's earlier familiarity with papermaking.
The transformation from tall to flat organizational structures primarily reflects efforts to:
Organizations are flattening (reducing management levels between CEO and production workers) in an effort to become more competitive. The traditional middle management role has been equated with cumbersome bureaucracy that prevents businesses from responding to market forces.
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